A frameshift mutation can be caused by which types of mutations?

A frameshift mutation occurs when the reading frame of the genetic code is altered, which can significantly change the resulting protein. This type of mutation happens when nucleotides are added or removed from the DNA sequence in a number that is not a multiple of three. As a result, all subsequent codons are shifted, leading to an entirely different amino acid sequence downstream.

Deletion mutations remove one or more nucleotides from the DNA sequence. If the number of nucleotides deleted is not a multiple of three, the reading frame shifts, causing a frameshift mutation.

Insertion mutations, on the other hand, add one or more nucleotides into the DNA sequence. Like deletion mutations, if the number of nucleotides inserted is not a multiple of three, this will also cause a frameshift by shifting the reading frame of the codons.

Substitution mutations only involve the replacement of one nucleotide with another and do not alter the overall reading frame, hence they do not cause frameshift mutations. Chromosomal mutations can lead to larger structural changes in chromosomes but do not directly relate to frameshift mutations in the way deletion and insertion mutations do. Nondisjunction refers to the failure of homologous chromosomes to segregate properly during cell division, impacting chromosome